diff --git a/src/e2ee.rs b/src/e2ee.rs
index 77606419c2..8a83b74cea 100644
--- a/src/e2ee.rs
+++ b/src/e2ee.rs
@@ -25,9 +25,10 @@ impl EncryptHelper {
     }
 
     pub fn get_aheader(&self) -> Aheader {
+        let public_key = pgp::minimize_autocrypt_certificate(&self.public_key);
         Aheader {
             addr: self.addr.clone(),
-            public_key: self.public_key.clone(),
+            public_key,
             prefer_encrypt: EncryptPreference::Mutual,
             verified: false,
         }
diff --git a/src/key.rs b/src/key.rs
index ff088a1c54..437db40d5d 100644
--- a/src/key.rs
+++ b/src/key.rs
@@ -124,13 +124,11 @@ pub trait DcKey: Serialize + Deserializable + Clone {
 
 /// Converts secret key to public key.
 pub(crate) fn secret_key_to_public_key(
-    context: &Context,
     mut signed_secret_key: SignedSecretKey,
     timestamp: u32,
     addr: &str,
     relay_addrs: &str,
 ) -> Result<SignedPublicKey> {
-    info!(context, "Converting secret key to public key.");
     let timestamp = pgp::types::Timestamp::from_secs(timestamp);
 
     // Subpackets that we want to share between DKS and User ID signature.
@@ -298,7 +296,7 @@ pub(crate) async fn load_self_public_key_opt(context: &Context) -> Result<Option
     let addr = context.get_primary_self_addr().await?;
     let all_addrs = context.get_published_self_addrs().await?.join(",");
     let signed_public_key =
-        secret_key_to_public_key(context, signed_secret_key, timestamp, &addr, &all_addrs)?;
+        secret_key_to_public_key(signed_secret_key, timestamp, &addr, &all_addrs)?;
     *lock = Some(signed_public_key.clone());
 
     Ok(Some(signed_public_key))
diff --git a/src/mimefactory.rs b/src/mimefactory.rs
index 3ee7f35920..0ef159e5dc 100644
--- a/src/mimefactory.rs
+++ b/src/mimefactory.rs
@@ -1095,9 +1095,11 @@ impl MimeFactory {
                                 continue;
                             }
 
+                            let public_key = crate::pgp::minimize_autocrypt_certificate(&key);
+
                             let header = Aheader {
                                 addr: addr.clone(),
-                                public_key: key.clone(),
+                                public_key,
                                 // Autocrypt 1.1.0 specification says that
                                 // `prefer-encrypt` attribute SHOULD NOT be included.
                                 prefer_encrypt: EncryptPreference::NoPreference,
diff --git a/src/pgp.rs b/src/pgp.rs
index 8821d36105..5d79c274ae 100644
--- a/src/pgp.rs
+++ b/src/pgp.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 //! OpenPGP helper module using [rPGP facilities](https://github.com/rpgp/rpgp).
 
-use std::collections::{HashMap, HashSet};
+use std::cmp::Ordering;
+use std::collections::btree_map::Entry as BTreeMapEntry;
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, HashMap, HashSet};
 use std::io::Cursor;
 
 use anyhow::{Context as _, Result, ensure};
@@ -14,7 +16,7 @@ use pgp::crypto::aead::{AeadAlgorithm, ChunkSize};
 use pgp::crypto::ecc_curve::ECCCurve;
 use pgp::crypto::hash::HashAlgorithm;
 use pgp::crypto::sym::SymmetricKeyAlgorithm;
-use pgp::packet::{Signature, Subpacket, SubpacketData};
+use pgp::packet::{Signature, SignatureType, Subpacket, SubpacketData};
 use pgp::types::{
     CompressionAlgorithm, Imprint, KeyDetails, KeyVersion, Password, SignedUser, SigningKey as _,
     StringToKey,
@@ -83,13 +85,63 @@ pub(crate) fn create_keypair(addr: EmailAddress) -> Result<SignedSecretKey> {
 
 /// Selects a subkey of the public key to use for encryption.
 ///
-/// Returns `None` if the public key cannot be used for encryption.
+/// The key is selected according to
+/// <https://www.ietf.org/archive/id/draft-autocrypt-openpgp-v2-cert-02.html#section-4.3-4>.
+/// If multiple keys are available, the one that will expire sooner is selected.
 ///
-/// TODO: take key flags and expiration dates into account
-fn select_pk_for_encryption(key: &SignedPublicKey) -> Option<&SignedPublicSubKey> {
+/// Returns `None` if the public key cannot be used for encryption.
+fn select_pk_for_encryption(now: u32, key: &SignedPublicKey) -> Option<&SignedPublicSubKey> {
     key.public_subkeys
         .iter()
-        .find(|subkey| subkey.algorithm().can_encrypt())
+        .filter(|subkey| subkey.algorithm().can_encrypt())
+        .filter_map(|subkey| {
+            // TODO: deal with multiple signatures.
+            let signature = subkey.signatures.first()?;
+
+            let key_flags = signature.key_flags();
+            if !key_flags.encrypt_comms() {
+                return None;
+            }
+
+            if let Some(expiration_duration) = signature
+                .key_expiration_time()
+                .filter(|duration| duration.as_secs() != 0)
+                && now
+                    > subkey
+                        .created_at()
+                        .as_secs()
+                        .saturating_add(expiration_duration.as_secs())
+            {
+                // Key is expired.
+                return None;
+            }
+            Some((subkey, signature))
+        })
+        .min_by(|(subkey1, signature1), (subkey2, signature2)| {
+            match (
+                signature1
+                    .key_expiration_time()
+                    .filter(|duration| duration.as_secs() != 0),
+                signature2
+                    .key_expiration_time()
+                    .filter(|duration| duration.as_secs() != 0),
+            ) {
+                (None, None) => Ordering::Equal,
+                (None, Some(_)) => Ordering::Greater,
+                (Some(_), None) => Ordering::Less,
+                (Some(expiration1), Some(expiration2)) => (subkey1
+                    .created_at()
+                    .as_secs()
+                    .saturating_add(expiration1.as_secs()))
+                .cmp(
+                    &(subkey2
+                        .created_at()
+                        .as_secs()
+                        .saturating_add(expiration2.as_secs())),
+                ),
+            }
+        })
+        .map(|(subkey, _signature)| subkey)
 }
 
 /// Version of SEIPD packet to use.
@@ -119,10 +171,11 @@ pub async fn pk_encrypt(
     Handle::current()
         .spawn_blocking(move || {
             let mut rng = thread_rng();
+            let now = pgp::types::Timestamp::now();
 
             let pkeys = public_keys_for_encryption
                 .iter()
-                .filter_map(select_pk_for_encryption);
+                .filter_map(|key| select_pk_for_encryption(now.as_secs(), key));
             let subpkts = {
                 let mut hashed = Vec::with_capacity(1 + public_keys_for_encryption.len() + 1);
                 hashed.push(Subpacket::critical(SubpacketData::SignatureCreationTime(
@@ -291,6 +344,161 @@ pub fn symm_encrypt_message(
     Ok(encoded_msg)
 }
 
+/// Minimizes the signatures of a subkey.
+///
+/// Keeps at most one subkey binding signature
+/// and at most one revocation signature,
+/// preferring the newest signatures.
+///
+/// Subkey binding signature is kept
+/// even if the revocation signature exists
+/// because according to
+/// <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9580.html#name-openpgp-version-6-certifica>
+/// "Every subkey MUST have at least one Subkey Binding signature."
+/// Distributing subkey with only a revocation signature
+/// is not allowed according to the standard,
+/// so we keep a subkey binding signature next to it
+/// for interoperability.
+///
+/// This function does not check if the signatures are valid.
+/// Such properties should be validated when importing OpenPGP certificates.
+fn minimize_subpacket_signatures(signatures: Vec<Signature>) -> Vec<Signature> {
+    let mut newest_revocation_signature: Option<Signature> = None;
+    let mut newest_binding_signature: Option<Signature> = None;
+    for signature in signatures {
+        let Some(config) = signature.config() else {
+            // Skip unknown signatures.
+            continue;
+        };
+        match config.typ {
+            SignatureType::SubkeyBinding => {
+                if newest_binding_signature
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_none_or(|s| s.created() < signature.created())
+                {
+                    newest_binding_signature = Some(signature)
+                }
+            }
+            SignatureType::SubkeyRevocation => {
+                if newest_revocation_signature
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_none_or(|s| s.created() < signature.created())
+                {
+                    newest_revocation_signature = Some(signature)
+                }
+            }
+            _ => continue,
+        }
+    }
+    newest_revocation_signature
+        .into_iter()
+        .chain(newest_binding_signature)
+        .collect()
+}
+
+/// Minimizes OpenPGP certificate for Autocrypt and Autocrypt-Gossip headers.
+pub fn minimize_autocrypt_certificate(certificate: &SignedPublicKey) -> SignedPublicKey {
+    let primary_key = certificate.primary_key.clone();
+    let details = certificate.details.clone();
+
+    // Select the newest non-expiring subkey and the newest expiring subkey.
+    let fallback_subkey = certificate
+        .public_subkeys
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|subkey| {
+            subkey
+                .signatures
+                .iter()
+                .find(|signature| {
+                    signature
+                        .config()
+                        .is_some_and(|config| config.typ == SignatureType::SubkeyBinding)
+                })
+                .is_some_and(|signature| signature.key_expiration_time().is_none())
+        })
+        .max_by_key(|subkey| {
+            subkey
+                .signatures
+                .iter()
+                .find(|signature| {
+                    signature
+                        .config()
+                        .is_some_and(|config| config.typ == SignatureType::SubkeyBinding)
+                })
+                .map(|signature| signature.created().unwrap_or(subkey.created_at()))
+        });
+    let rotating_subkey = certificate
+        .public_subkeys
+        .iter()
+        .filter(|subkey| {
+            subkey
+                .signatures
+                .iter()
+                .find(|signature| {
+                    signature
+                        .config()
+                        .is_some_and(|config| config.typ == SignatureType::SubkeyBinding)
+                })
+                .is_some_and(|signature| signature.key_expiration_time().is_some())
+        })
+        .max_by_key(|subkey| {
+            subkey
+                .signatures
+                .iter()
+                .find(|signature| {
+                    signature
+                        .config()
+                        .is_some_and(|config| config.typ == SignatureType::SubkeyBinding)
+                })
+                .map(|signature| signature.created().unwrap_or(subkey.created_at()))
+        });
+    let public_subkeys: Vec<_> = fallback_subkey
+        .into_iter()
+        .chain(rotating_subkey)
+        .cloned()
+        .collect();
+
+    // We do not want to ever gossip more than two subkeys
+    // to save the traffic.
+    debug_assert!(public_subkeys.len() <= 2);
+
+    SignedPublicKey {
+        primary_key,
+        details,
+        public_subkeys,
+    }
+}
+
+/// Merges two OpenPGP subkeys.
+fn merge_openpgp_subkey(old_subkey: &mut SignedPublicSubKey, new_subkey: SignedPublicSubKey) {
+    debug_assert_eq!(old_subkey.fingerprint(), new_subkey.fingerprint());
+    old_subkey.signatures = minimize_subpacket_signatures(
+        std::mem::take(&mut old_subkey.signatures)
+            .into_iter()
+            .chain(new_subkey.signatures)
+            .collect(),
+    );
+}
+
+/// Merges OpenPGP subkey vectors.
+pub fn merge_openpgp_subkeys(
+    subkeys: impl IntoIterator<Item = SignedPublicSubKey>,
+) -> Result<Vec<SignedPublicSubKey>> {
+    let mut merged_subkeys: BTreeMap<_, SignedPublicSubKey> = BTreeMap::new();
+    for subkey in subkeys {
+        let imprint = subkey.imprint::<Sha256>()?;
+        match merged_subkeys.entry(imprint) {
+            BTreeMapEntry::Vacant(entry) => {
+                entry.insert(subkey);
+            }
+            BTreeMapEntry::Occupied(entry) => {
+                merge_openpgp_subkey(entry.into_mut(), subkey);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(merged_subkeys.into_values().collect())
+}
+
 /// Merges and minimizes OpenPGP certificates.
 ///
 /// Keeps at most one direct key signature and
@@ -327,7 +535,7 @@ pub fn merge_openpgp_certificates(
     let SignedPublicKey {
         primary_key: new_primary_key,
         details: new_details,
-        public_subkeys: _new_public_subkeys,
+        public_subkeys: new_public_subkeys,
     } = new_certificate;
 
     // Public keys may be serialized differently, e.g. using old and new packet type,
@@ -403,7 +611,55 @@ pub fn merge_openpgp_certificates(
         });
     let users: Vec<SignedUser> = best_user.into_iter().collect();
 
-    let public_subkeys = old_public_subkeys;
+    let (fallback_subkeys, mut rotating_subkeys): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =
+        merge_openpgp_subkeys(old_public_subkeys.into_iter().chain(new_public_subkeys))?
+            .into_iter()
+            .filter_map(|subkey| {
+                // Select the newest subkey binding signature.
+                //
+                // There is at most one subkey binding signature at this point
+                // because older subkey binding signatures are removed during merging.
+                let signature = subkey.signatures.iter().find(|signature| {
+                    signature
+                        .config()
+                        .is_some_and(|config| config.typ == SignatureType::SubkeyBinding)
+                })?;
+
+                let created_at_secs = signature.created().unwrap_or(subkey.created_at()).as_secs();
+                let expires_at_secs: Option<u32> = signature
+                    .key_expiration_time()
+                    .map(|duration| duration.as_secs())
+                    .filter(|duration_secs| *duration_secs != 0)
+                    .map(|duration_secs| {
+                        subkey.created_at().as_secs().saturating_add(duration_secs)
+                    });
+
+                Some((subkey, created_at_secs, expires_at_secs))
+            })
+            .partition(|(_subkey, _created_at_secs, expires_at_secs)| expires_at_secs.is_none());
+    let fallback_subkey: Option<SignedPublicSubKey> = fallback_subkeys
+        .into_iter()
+        .max_by_key(|(_subkey, created_at_secs, _)| *created_at_secs)
+        .map(|(subkey, _, _)| subkey);
+
+    rotating_subkeys
+        .sort_by_key(|(_subkey, created_at_secs, _)| std::cmp::Reverse(*created_at_secs));
+
+    // Put the fallback subkey first so it is gossiped first.
+    //
+    // We want to always gossip non-expiring key first
+    // for older versions that always encrypted to the first subkey.
+    //
+    // Keep 10 newest rotating subkeys to avoid storing indefinitely growing number of subkeys locally.
+    let public_subkeys = fallback_subkey
+        .into_iter()
+        .chain(
+            rotating_subkeys
+                .into_iter()
+                .take(10)
+                .map(|(subkey, _, _)| subkey),
+        )
+        .collect();
 
     Ok(SignedPublicKey {
         primary_key: old_primary_key,